Cadmium telluride photovoltaic cells

ABSTRACT

Photovoltaic cell comprises thin film cadmium telluride in ohmic contact with a conductive substrate, preferbaly comprising a cadmium surface, through a cadmium-rich layer at the interface with the substrate. The cell further includes a rectifying barrier layer which may be a Schottky barrier. The film is electrodeposited on the substrate surface and the substrate materials and electrodeposition conditions are controlled so as to produce a substantially stoichiometric deposit. Preferably, the film or cell is subsequently treated to enhance its efficiency.

This application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. Application Ser. No. 049,728, filed June 18, 1979, now U.S. Pat. No. 4,260,427, of common inventorship and assignment herewith.

This invention pertains to photovoltaic cells and methods for making such cells. More particularly, this invention pertains to improved thin film cadmium telluride cells of much improved efficiency, and low cost, as compared to those heretofore available.

Cadmium telluride is a semiconductor whose electronic properties have long been recognized as ideally suited for photovoltaic conversion of sunlight. In particular, its band gap energy is 1.45 electron volts, which is optimal for solar radiation reaching the earth.

Indeed, various research groups have made CdTe solar cells. However, much of this work is restricted to the use of single crystal cadmium telluride which is an expensive material obtained by slowly growing a crystal from a melt containing cadmium and tellurium.

Other workers (e.g., D. A. Cusano, CdTe SOLAR CELLS AND PHOTOVOLTAIC HETEROJUNCTIONS IN II-VI COMPOUNDS, Solid-State Electronics, Pergamon Press 1963, Vol. 6, pp 217-232) have made solar cells from polycrystalline CdTe, which is prepared by the much cheaper process of vapor deposition. However, it still necessitates the use of elevated temperatures and special deposition equipment.

In U.S. Pat. No. 3,982,260, Wald discloses photovoltaic cells in which CdTe is vapor deposited on, and forms an ohmic contact with, a substrate of iron or iron coated with indium or, " . . . a metal other than indium, or an other semiconductor, (e.g., aluminum, tin telluride or lead telluride) . . . used to bond cadmium telluride to the iron substrate." (Col. 4, lines 48-51)

Raychaudhuri (U.S. Pat. No. 4,035,197) prepared polycrystalline solar cells from hot-pressed CdTe powder. Pre-heating the CdTe in an oxygen-containing atmosphere prior to deposition of the barrier layer was said to produce a TeO₂ -rich surface layer adapted to enhance the open-circuit voltage of the cell. Raychaudhuri also taught that the CdTe could be doped n-type by annealing in a cadmium atmosphere.

A much simpler and less costly method for material deposition is electrodeposition. And techniques for electrodepositing CdTe are known. McEwan et al (U.S. Pat. No. 3,887,446) describe an electrolytic method in which a tellurium anode and cadmium cathode are immersed in an acidic buffer solution with the resultant formation of a CdTe precipitate. Similarly, Ammerman et al (U.S. Pat. No. 3,419,484) electrodeposited various metal-telluride compounds in sponge form.

Danaher et al (Photoelectrochemical Cell With Cadmium Telluride Film, Nature, Vol. 271, No. 5641, p. 139, Jan. 12, 1978) and Panicker et al, CATHODIC DEPOSITION OF CdTe FROM AQUEOUS ELECTROLYTES, J. Electrochem. Soc. pp. 566-572 (April 1978) both prepared CdTe by cathodic electrodeposition using an acidic electrolyte. Danaher et al deposited the CdTe, from a stirred solution, onto a sanded and degreased titanium substrate. This coated substrate is said to have a photovoltaic power conversion efficiency extrapolated to be 2%-4% with respect to light incident on the film. But the film is immersed in an electrolyte of a photoelectrochemical cell and actual measured conversion efficiency, with respect to light incident on the cell, is said to be 0.4% or less.

Panicker discusses the general possibility of anodic, as well as cathodic, deposition of CdTe. More specifically, Panicker et al discloses a range of process conditions for electrodepositing CdTe of varying stoichiometry from stirred baths consisting essentially of CdSO₄ and TeO₂. The presence of free cadmium in the deposit is discussed with reference to specific process conditions but no special significance is attributed to such deposits. Annealing the film is said to increase its grain size and increased stirring is said to increase the current density required to produce exactly stoichiometric CdTe.

Apparently, following the teaching of Panicker et al, Monosolar, Inc., under a Department of Energy contract, formed heterojunction solar cells as reported in Monosolar, Inc., DOE Photovoltaic Systems Program Summary, p. 102, Dec. 1978 (Department of Energy Publication No. DOE/ER-0075), Monosolar, Inc. DOE Contract No. EX-76-C-01-2457, Quarterly Report No. 6, Nov. 30, 1977, and University of Southern California Periodic Report for Aug. 1-Oct. 31, 1977, under DOE Contract No. EX-76-C-01-2457, USC Account No. 53-4510-1834. Monosolar's cell structure is formed by electrodepositing arsenic-doped p-type CdTe onto glass substrates which have been coated with transparent n-In₂ O₃ :Sn. Finally, an ohmic contact to the p-CdTe is formed by the use of p-Te layer. In the University of Southern California sub-contract report, reference is made to the advisability of depositing onto CdSn₂ O₄ -coated glass. In each case, the junction between the substrate and the electrodeposit forms a rectifying junction, as contrasted with an ohmic junction.

The Monosolar work is also described in Canadian Pat. No. 1,077,161 and British Pat. No. 1,532,616, both of which are primarily directed to photovoltaic cells formed from cadmium telluride, sulfide or selenide semiconductor material having an N-type region and a P-type region as well as a junction therebetween.

Fahrenbruch et al (Recent Investigation of Metal Oxide Heterojunction Solar Cells--13th Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, June 1978) discuss efforts to make improved CdTe photocells by depositing onto CdTe (generally monocrystalline), a window layer of ZnO or indium-tin oxide, by sputtering or spray pyrolysis.

Notwithstanding these prior efforts of others to produce effective cadmium telluride photovoltaic cells, by methods including electrodeposition, and cadmium telluride deposition technology generally, there remains a continuing need for more efficient and less expensive photovoltaic cells and particularly for more efficient cadmium telluride photovoltaic cells and practical, inexpensive methods for making such cells.

It is the general objective of the present invention to provide such improved efficiency cells and more practical and inexpensive manufacturing processes.

In its broadest aspect, the present invention comprises an improvement in photovoltaic cells employing a cadmium telluride film as the photovoltaic material in which one side of the film forms an ohmic junction with a conductive layer and the ohmic junction interface is relatively rich in one or more Group II B or III A metals such as zinc, mercury, thallium, gallium, aluminium, boron and preferably cadmium or indium. The other side of the film may form a P-N junction, a Schottky barrier, or otherwise be joined to the additional layers required for a complete photovoltaic cell. More specifically, the present invention comprises a photovoltaic cell having a cadmium telluride film with a barrier layer on one side (forming a rectifying junction therewith, e.g., a Schottky barrier layer) and a conductive layer on the other side, the conductive layer forming an ohmic junction with the film and the film having, for example, a relatively cadmium-rich surface at its ohmic junction interface. Preferably, this cadmium-rich ohmic junction interface surface is produced by electrodepositing the cadmium telluride film onto a cadmium substrate. Still more preferably, the cadmium telluride is n-type electrodeposited from either acidic or alkaline bath onto a substrate, consisting of a cadmium coated substrate having a rest potential in the electrodeposition bath more positive than that of cadmium, under conditions which result in the formation of a substantially stoichimetric cadmium telluride film.

In one method for producing the more efficient cadmium telluride photovoltaic cells of the present invention a polished stainless steel substrate, provided with a thin gold strike overlayer in turn covered with a thin cadmium outer surface, forms a substrate for the electrodeposition of cadmium telluride from an acidic bath comprising cadmium sulfate and tellurium dioxide and having a pH of about 2.5 and a bath temperature of about 80° C. Still more preferably, the bath is continuously stirred, recirculated and filtered and is monitored, for deposition potential, by reference to a silver/silver chloride saturated reference electrode. In one embodiment, the electrodeposition is carried out at a constant voltage of -583 mV (+5 mV) with respect to the silver/silver chloride saturated reference electrode thereby producing a substantially stoichiometric deposit. The voltage may vary beyond those limits depending upon the nature of the substrate and other deposition conditions while still achieving a substantially stoichiometric deposit.

In another aspect, this invention pertains to improvements in the cost and efficiency of cadmium telluride solar cells of the type described herein by the use of a variety of materials and treatments at various stages in the fabrication of a complete photovoltaic cell. Thus, for example, the invention contemplates the use of other substrates which eliminate the expensive gold interlayer while still providing a substrate having the desired rest potential. This includes a polished cold rolled steel substrate which is directly covered by a thin outer surface of cadmium, or other Group II B or III A metal; a stainless steel underlayer which is specially processed and activated prior to addition of the cadmium outer layer, or a substrate having an intermediate nickel layer between the stainless steel layer and the surface layer of cadmium.

This invention also pertains to techniques for improving the method of electrodepositing the photovoltaic cadmium telluride film including the use of a lower pH, e.g., 1.4-2.5, to improve tellurium solubility and deposition rate; the use of an initial more negative deposition voltage, upon deposition of cadmium telluride, to avoid deplating cadmium from a cadmium-substrate and with the possible concurrent effect of cadmium enrichment at the beginning of the cadmium telluride deposition process; the provision of a constant current deposition process which is made possible by choice of cadmium thickness on the ohmic substrate; the deposition of cadmium selenide at the ohmic interface by the inclusion of selenous acid at least at the beginning of the cadmium telluride deposition process to reduce short circuits; and the substitution of other cadmium salts such as cadmium chloride, as the source of cadmium for electrodeposition.

This invention also contemplates the use of techniques for the treatment of the electrodeposited cadmium telluride film to enhance the efficiency of the photovoltaic cell. Preferably, the cadmium telluride film is treated, such as by annealing in air, or in air with controlled partial pressure of water vapor, or nitrogen atmosphere by chemical or electrical plasma etching or electrolytic treatment, to produce modified chemical and/or crystalline characteristics, adapted to receive the barrier layer coated thereon and which forms a rectifying junction therewith. One preferred treatment involves annealing the partially fabricated cell in air prior to the deposition of the barrier layer followed by a caustic treatment after the barrier layer is deposited whereby the cadmium telluride film is provided with a surface, adjacent to the rectifying junction, which is relatively rich in cadmium and tellurium oxides and hydroxides. Alternatively, the completed photovoltaic cell may be treated, such as by annealing in hydrogen, by electrolytic treatment, or by immersion in electrolytes, to produce modified chemical and electronic characteristics at the rectifying junction surface of the cadmium telluride, i.e, at the rectifying junction.

In a preferred embodiment, the invention also contemplates the formation of a Schottky barrier formed from any of a wide variety of metals, including gold. The barrier layer is also, in accordance with the preferred embodiment, overcoated with a patterned conductive material adapted to permit incident light to reach the barrier layer but to produce a good conductive connection therewith. Still further, the overlayer is preferably provided with an outer anti-reflective coating which can act as an encapsulant.

For a better understanding of the present invention, reference may be made to the detailed description thereof which follows, taken in conjunction with the claims and the appended figure, which is a diagrammatic cross-sectional view of the preferred photovoltaic cell of the present invention.

Further, although the invention described herein is applicable to photovoltaic cells in which Group II B and Group III A metals other than cadmium are present, the description of the invention is generally set forth in terms of the preferred embodiment, namely, a cadmium enriched ohmic junction interface.

In the FIGURE, there is shown a photovoltaic cell 10 made in accordance with the preferred embodiment of the present invention. More specifically, cell 10 comprises a substrate, for example, a polished stainless steel substrate 1 with a thin gold contact layer 1(a) and a cadmium surface layer 2. Over cadmium surface layer 2 is disposed the cadmium telluride photovoltaic film 3, in turn coated with a metal Schottky barrier layer, such as gold barrier layer 5, and a metallic patterned finger grid 6. Conductive or ohmic junctions are formed between stainless steel substrate 1, gold overlayer 1(a) and cadmium surface layer 2, and in turn at the interface between cadmium surface layer 2 and cadmium telluride film 3. A barrier or rectifying junction layer is formed between cadmium telluride film 3 and the gold barrier layer 5 at their interface, while the metallic finger grid 6 is adapted to make good conductive contact with barrier layer 5 but to permit incident light to reach barrier layer 5 in the surface thereof not covered by the patterned finger grid 6.

The improved efficiency of the photovoltaic cell of the present invention is believed attributable, at least in part, to the nature of the ohmic junction between the cadmium telluride 3 and the cadmium surface layer 2, at their interface. This may result from a slight cadmium enrichment of the cadmium telluride stoichiometry at the cadmium surface interface. Although not wishing to be limited to any particular theory, enrichment may result from an initial non-stoichiometric electrodeposit or from solid state diffusion of cadmium from the cadmium surface of the substrate.

Similarly, the surface of cadmium telluride film 3 at its rectifying junction interface with barrier layer 5 may be better adapted to receive barrier layer 5 for producing more efficient cells, by annealing or other chemical or electrolytic treatment. Such treatments as described more fully hereinafter, are believed to modify the chemical and/or crystalline characteristics of the cadmium telluride film at the surface thereof in contact with barrier layer 5. Still further enhancement results from certain treatments of the cell after barrier layer deposition.

The preferred method for making a cell of the type shown in the figure comprises first polishing a stainless steel substrate to facilitate the subsequent electrodeposition of thin, pinhole-free layers thereon. The polishing method may be either mechanical or electrolytic.

To mechanically polish the stainless steel substrate, alumina abrasive in the size range of 1 um to 0.1 um particle size is used on a conventional wet polishing wheel to polish the stainless steel substrate to a mirror finish. Alternatively, the stainless steel substrate is electropolished by immersing it in concentrated phosphoric acid (H₃ PO₄) at 50°-60° C. The stainless steel is made anodic with respect to a carbon cathode, using a constant voltage power supply. Samples having an area of about 25 cm² require a current of 3-5 amperes. The electrolyte is agitated strongly using a magnetic stirrer. The electropolishing treatment is typically carried out for 15 minutes.

The polished stainless steel substrate is then given a gold overlayer (about 350-700 A) by a commercially available acid gold strike solution (such as Orostrike, sold by Technic, Inc., P.O. Box 965, Providence, R. I. 02901). This gold overlayer is deposited at a constant current density of 50 mA/cm² for about 15 seconds, from a bath at 60° C., using platinized titanium screen as a counterelectrode.

This gold-coated stainless steel substrate then serves as a base for the deposition of a thin (about 1000 A) layer of cadmium, electrodeposited from a commercial cadmium cyanide bath at room temperature.

In an alternative embodiment, a lower cost substrate may be prepared in which the intermediate gold layer is eliminated. In accordance with this embodiment, a stainless steel substrate is electropolished in phosphoric acid as hereinbefore described. Thereafter, the stainless steel substrate is made cathodic with respect to a platinum anode using a constant voltage power supply and a current of 0.3 to 0.7 amperes for a substrate having an area of about 25 cm², and is immersed in concentrated hydrochloric acid at room temperature for a period of equal or less than one minute while the acid electrolyte is strongly agitated. Following the hydrochloric acid treatment, the stainless steel substrate is rinsed with water until it is substantially free of residual acid. Finally, the substrate is again made cathodic in the manner heretofore described and is immersed in a 0.5 to 2.0 M aqueous solution of sodium or potassium cyanide for a period of 0.5 to 5.0 minutes. The cyanide immersion step is carried out at a current of 0.3 to 0.7 amperes for a substrate having an area of about 25 cm².

Other substrates composited from a variety of materials may be useful in the formation of photovoltaic cells having low cost and high efficiency provided that such materials are capable of forming a good ohmic junction with the cadmium telluride film and do not adversely affect the formation of that film. In order to deposit cadmium telluride, it is preferable that the deposition substrate have a rest potential which is more positive than that of the optimum deposition voltage. Thus, it has been found that in this bath, deposition onto plain cadmium stock (having a rest potential of -615 mV in a cadmium sulfate bath) or plated to 0.001" on stainless steel (having a composite rest potential of -612 mV in a cadmium sulfate bath) produced deposits of non-optimized stoichiometry.

In contrast, cadmium, plated to a thickness of 1000 A on stainless steel with a 700 A thick intermediate gold layer, has a rest potential of -572 mV, slightly more positive than the preferred plating voltage of -538 mV in a cadmium sulfate bath. It is apparent that the rest potential of the substrate then is a composite of the complex substrate. Stainless steel, having a rest potential of +275 mV, and gold, having a rest potential of +300 mV in the electrodeposition solution, tend to make more positive the rest potential of the composite in which the cadmium surface layer provides the immediate substrate for cadmium telluride deposition. Composite substrates employing Group II B or III A metals, other than cadmium, e.g., indium, as the surface layer can be constructed so as to have the necessary rest potential (more positive than cadmium) for a substantially stoichiometric deposit of the cadmium telluride film. In addition, the intermediate gold layer can be replaced by other materials such as nickel.

Onto this smooth cadmium-surfaced substrate, cadmium telluride is electrodeposited to form an excellent ohmic junction with the cadmium-surfaced substrate, the electrodeposited cadmium telluride being cadmium-rich at its junction with the 1000 A cadmium layer. This is believed at least in part responsible for the excellent ohmic junction and for the overall efficiency of the cell ultimately produced.

The cadmium telluride is deposited from an aqueous bath comprising a 1.2 Molar CdSO₄ solution saturated with TeO₂, the pH of the bath being 2.5 or less and the bath temperature being about 80° C. It has now been found that a lower pH of about 2.1 results in a considerable improvement in deposition rate as a result of an increase in tellurium solubility. Alternatively, the cadmium telluride film may be deposited from a cadmium chloride plating bath, in which event a lower pH, e.g., 1.4 to 2.5, may be used. In addition, the absolute values of the substrate rest potential and optimum deposition potential will be different, although the heretofore defined relationship between these parameters is unchanged.

In this electrodeposition bath, the possible detrimental effects of undissolved tellurium dioxide and other inhomogeneities, which could possibly lead to the presence of inclusions in the final deposit or shorts in the solar cell, are eliminated by continuously recirculating the electrolyte, while stirring the bath vigorously with a magnetic stirrer and filtering the recirculating electrolyte.

Still further, the high quality of the cadmium telluride deposit is maintained by electrodepositing at a constant, and apparently optimal deposition voltage for n-cadmium telluride in this cadmium sulfate electrolytic bath, of -583 mV+5 mV, with the lower end of the range being preferred at lower pH values. This potentiostatic deposition produces a homogeneous and stoichiometric cadmium telluride film.

Deposition potential is controlled with respect to a silver/silver chloride saturated reference electrode. The saturated calomel electrode used by Panicker et al is specifically avoided to avoid poisoning of the plating bath with mercury and also to preclude deterioration of the reference electrode during the electrodeposition at elevated temperature.

While the thickness of the cadmium telluride layer is not critical, it is desirable to minimize this thickness in order to minimize materials used and deposition time. In this regard, cadmium telluride layer as thin as 1 um have been found to give efficient solar cells. The practical thickness range is believed to be about 0.5 to 5 microns.

The electrodeposited cadmium telluride film formed in this manner also maintains good ohmic contact with the cadmium surfaced substrate even during subsequent heat treatment of the cadmium telluride film, an important characteristic in producing the high efficiency cell which is the ultimate objective of this process.

There are several possible modifications or additions to the foregoing electrodeposition method which may serve to improve the process under certain circumstances. Thus, for example, the use of an initial more negative deposition potential, for example, in the range of -580 mV to -1000 mV for a period of 1 to 1000 seconds assists in avoiding deplating of cadmium from the substrate which might otherwise occur as a result of the transient conditions existing at the beginning of the electrodeposition process. This more negative potential is gradually made more positive until the optimum deposition potential for a stoichiometric deposit with a specific substrate and deposition bath is reached. The use of the initial more negative potential may also be of assistance in achieving or maintaining cadmium enrichment at the ohmic junction interface. However, for scaled up commercial operations, operation at constant current is desirable and can be achieved, without variation of the initial deposition conditions, by optimization of the characteristics of the substrate and particularly the thickness of the cadmium layer on which the cadmium telluride film is electrodeposited.

The electrodeposition process may be further modified to reduce the potential for short circuit paths by adding a small amount, e.g., 1 to 1000 mg./liter of selenous acid to the electrodeposition bath. While not wishing to be limited to any particular theory, it is believed that the presence of selenium enhances nucleation and results in an initial co-deposit of cadmium selenide as well as cadmium telluride. When this technique is employed, electrodeposition is commenced in the selenium containing bath and continued for a period in the range of 5 to 25 minutes after which time the substrate is transferred to a fresh bath containing no selenium and the electrodeposition is continued until a cadmium telluride film of the desired thickness is deposited.

Other techniques for avoiding short circuit paths may also be employed. These include the use of cadmium chloride or other cadmium salts in lieu of, or in addition to cadmium sulfate or the use of other bath additives.

The next step in the manufacture of the photovoltaic cell is to deposit a barrier layer on the cadmium telluride film. This is sometimes referred to as a Schottky barrier and generally comprises an overlayer, forming at its interface with the cadmium telluride film, a rectifying junction. In the preferred form of the present invention, a thin (80 A) semi-transparent layer of gold is vacuum deposited on the electrodeposited cadmium telluride film. In accordance with known technology, the difference between the work function of the gold and the electron affinity of the cadmium telluride gives rise to a space charge at the interface between these two materials. The electric field produced by this space charge then acts to separate charged carriers of opposite sign which are created by incident photons. Solar cells of small area produced in accordance with the method just described have AM1 efficiencies of up to 1.5%. Other metals such as chromium, aluminum, vanadium, cobalt and especially nickel are useful as barrier layers and may be deposited in accordance with known techniques.

While the preferred form of the present invention is a Schottky barrier cell (or a metal-insulator-semiconductor cell in those instances where the CdTe layer has an insulating oxide layer at the rectifying junction), it will readily occur to those persons skilled in the art that the improved ohmic junction achieved by virtue of the present invention is not limited to such cells and can, in fact, be used in other potentially useful photovoltaic cells, such as the cells based upon the formation of a P-N junction in a cadmium telluride film which are described in British Pat. No. 1,532,616.

Preferably, however, cells of higher efficiency are produced by further treatment of the cadmium telluride. This may be done by processing steps prior to deposition of the barrier layer (sometimes referred to as "pre-treatments"), the effect of which may be to modify the crystal grain size of the cadmium telluride or to render the cadmium telluride barrier layer interface surface either oxide-rich or tellurium-rich, or to produce some combination of these effects.

Still further treatment of the cadmium telluride, following barrier layer deposition, is also part of the preferred process of the present invention. In these further processing steps (sometimes referred to as "post-treatments"), the cell is annealed in hydrogen and/or immersed in various electrolytes, the effect of which is to act on the cadmium telluride/barrier interface so as to improve its rectifying characteristics.

Typical pre-treatments include:

A. Nitrogen Anneal

One of the limitations in the output of the as-deposited CdTe solar cell is the small crystal grain size. In addition, the as-deposited CdTe has a high resistivity. These undesirable effects can be ameliorated to some extent by nitrogen annealing the cadmium telluride. Thus, the cadmium telluride can be treated in a nitrogen atmosphere at an elevated temperature, on the order of 250° C. for 60 minutes, before Schottky barrier layer deposition, to increase significantly the efficiency of the cell.

B. Oxidizing Atmosphere Anneal

This is an annealing treatment which is similar to the nitrogen anneal in that it will increase the crystal grain size. However, in addition it will grow an oxide layer on the surface of the cadmium telluride layer. This oxide layer enhances the open circuit voltage of the cells. Preferably, the annealing treatment in air is carried out at a temperature of at least 300° C. or higher for a period of at least one hour. The technique is similar to that described in Raychaudhuri U.S. Pat. No. 4,035,197. However, when combined with an akaline post-treatment as described further hereinafter, unexpected increases in cell efficiency are achieved.

C. Anodic treatment in Alkaline Electrolyte

The problem of low shunt resistance across the cell can be ameliorated by impressing a positive voltage on the cadmium telluride film (prior to deposition of barrier layer) while it is immersed in an alkaline solution.

D. Flame Treatment

Still another means for improving the photovoltaic efficiency in accordance with the present invention and specifically for increasing the crystal grain size of the cadmium telluride at the rectifying junction surface is to treat the cadmium telluride film by passing it through a hot propane flame for a brief period of time on the order of 1/4 to 3 seconds. This procedure gives an increase in the short circuit current.

One treatment, which may be considered a combination of pre- and post-treatments, is that referred to as the "Etch and Hydrogen Anneal." In this procedure, surface roughness and nonuniformities of the cadmium telluride film are reduced by an etching with a chemical etchant, such as a mixture of bromine and methanol. The barrier layer is then deposited on the etched surface and then the cell is annealed in a hydrogen atmosphere. Typical experimental conditions for this treatment include the use of a bromine/methanol solution comprising 1000 parts methanol to 1 part bromine, with an etch time of about 10 seconds and a subsequent annealing temperature (following barrier layer deposition) in a hydrogen atmosphere of about 150° C.

Typical post-treatments include:

E. Immersion in Alkaline Solution

This treatment generally follows air annealing and consists of immersion of the cadmium telluride in a 25 weight % KOH solution for a time on the order of 5-15 minutes. While not wishing to be limited to any particular theory, it is presently believed that this treatment, in conjunction with the Schottky barrier creates a corrosion cell which, in turn, provides favorable conditions for the at least partial conversion of tellurium and cadmium oxides, formed during the air annealing step, to their respective hydroxides. Cadmium hydroxide is a better insulator than cadmium oxide and, together with the tellurium oxides and hydroxides, produce higher cell efficiencies.

F. Cathodic Treatment in Alkaline Electrolyte

Photovoltaic efficiency is also improved in the photovoltaic cells of the present invention by impressing a negative voltage on the film while it is immersed in an alkaline solution.

Typical conditions for this procedure are:

    ______________________________________                                         electrolyte:  86 vol. % of NH.sub.4 OH concentrated                                          solution                                                                       14 vol. % of 45% KOH solution                                    current:      3mA/cm.sup.2                                                     immersion time:                                                                              5-30 seconds                                                     ______________________________________                                    

G. Hydrazine Treatment

Improved efficiency is also obtained in the photovoltaic cells of the present invention by treatment of the cells by immersion in a concentrated solution of hydrazine (H₂ NNH₂). Generally, this procedure improves the open circuit voltage, short circuit current and fill factor simultaneously, although the exact reasons for this improvement have not been verified. Typical immersion time is on the order of 2.0 minutes at room temperature.

H. Cyanide Treatment

Improved efficiency is also obtained in the photovoltaic cells of the present invention by treatment of the cells by immersion in a solution containing cyanide ions (CN⁻). The appropriate time depends upon the concentration and temperature. Typical values are 1 to 60 seconds at concentrations ranging from 0.01 wt% to saturation.

It should be understood that the foregoing cadmium telluride treatment steps have not been fully optimized, nor are they mutually exclusive. Indeed, they are best used in combination although the optimum sequence also has not been established. To illustrate the enhanced efficiency obtained by these various treatments, the following table lists the photovoltaic efficiency (AMl) for photovoltaic cells produced in accordance with the present invention and with cadmium telluride film modifications utilizing the treatment sequence described in the table.

                  TABLE                                                            ______________________________________                                         Treatment             Efficiency (AMI)                                         ______________________________________                                         1.  Untreated CdTe        1.04%                                                2.  Nitrogen annealed at 250° C.                                            for 60 minutes prior to                                                        barrier layer deposition                                                                             1.89%                                                3.  Hydrazine treatment for 1 minute                                                                     2.6%                                                 4.  Additional hydrazine treatment                                                 for 1 additional minute                                                                              3.8%                                                 5.  Cathodic treatment in NH.sub.4 OH/KOH                                                                4.2%                                                 ______________________________________                                    

In other tests, photovoltaic cells with AMl efficiencies in excess of 5% have been obtained without the use of anti-reflective coating. With a well-designed anti-reflective coating, it is believed that photovoltaic cells in accordance with the present invention will exceed 6% efficiency, even without further optimization.

As of this time, the preferred treatment sequence is:

Pre-Barrier Layer Deposition

1. Air anneal at 300° C. and 60 minutes; (Barrier layer deposition)

Post-Barrier Layer Deposition

2. Immersion in 25 weight % KOH solution at room temperature for 5 minutes;

3. Immersion in concentrated hydrazine for 3 minutes at room temperature.

For large area photovoltaic cells, the Schottky barrier does not suffice as a top electrode because of its high sheet resistance. Therefore, a grid of metallic fingers is deposited over the Schottky barrier layer. Generally, an anti-reflective coating is also applied over the metallic finger grid and the barrier layer to minimize reflections from the front surface, in accordance with known technology.

In the foregoing preferred photovoltaic cell and method of manufacture of same, the gold underlayer, and the gold barrier layer add significantly to the cost of the photovoltaic cell. Elimination of the gold underlayer has been achieved in several test cells by electrodepositing cadmium directly onto polished cold rolled steel substrates. Substitution of less expensive material is also expected to be feasible for the barrier layer but cells in which this modification is incorporated have not yet been optimized. In this regard, high work function metal or alloys would appear most promising for n-type CdTe cells.

As an alternative to the acid deposition process for producing the cadmium telluride film in the photovoltaic cell of the present invention and as a novel method for electrodepositing cadmium telluride generally, an alkaline deposition process has been devised. In accordance with this process, smooth, thin, adherent cathodic cadmium telluride deposits in a composition range of 0.85 to 1.3 atoms of cadmium per atom of tellurium have been produced. Such cadmium telluride film has been demonstrated to exhibit a photovoltaic response when appropriately combined with a Schottky barrier layer. To date, such cells have been produced utilizing the cadmium surfaced, gold-coated stainless steel substrate optimized for purposes of the acid deposition process described above, but it is believed that the alkaline electrodeposition process is not limited thereto. Similarly, the photovoltaic cells produced to date utilizing the alkaline bath deposited cadmium telluride film have utilized a gold barrier layer. However, the semiconductive cadmium telluride film electrodeposited in this manner may be utilized in other semiconductor applications and in other types of photovoltaic cells.

In any event, in accordance with this process, stoichiometric cadmium telluride (cadmium to tellurium atomic ratio of 1:1) has been produced with good deposits obtained over a wide range of solution compositions, temperatures and cathode current densities. These baths exhibit high throwing power and, due to the high solubility of tellurium at elevated pH, these baths permit plating at high current densities, which provides a considerable advantage over the acid deposition process described above.

For reasons of ease of maintaining solution composition stability and prolonged bath life, relatively concentrated baths of pH greater than 11 are desired. Solubilized Cd(II) at 2 to 15 g/l, Te(IV) at 5 to 30 g/l and free CN⁻ at 0.5 to 2 gram atom per liter are desired. Bath temperatures of 60°-85° C. have been found desirable. Low solution pH and high solution temperatures create (each their own) the problem of maintaining CN⁻ levels constant. A pH less than 11 allows CN⁻ loss as volatile HCN and high temperatures allow a higher rate of CN⁻ hydrolysis and also CN⁻ oxidation in baths not protected from air. Solution pH values greater than ca. 13 with unprotected baths are also not desired (especially if the solution is not pH buffered) partly because CO₂ absorption slowly lowers solution pH.

The source of cadmium (II) may be a water soluble Cd salt, e.g., CdCl₂ or CdSO₄, but CdO and/or Cd(OH)₂ is preferred for ease of pH control and to prevent long-term build-up of soluble sulfates and/or chlorides in the bath as the Cd component is replenished.

The tellurium (IV) source is TeO₂ for the same reasons that Cd is added as an oxide. Other Te sources could be used.

Cyanide ion is usually added as KCN but other soluble cyanides, e.g., those of other alkali metals and even gaseous HCN could be used.

Solution pH buffers have been used in some cases to reduce pH drifts.

TeO₂ is easily solubilized in high concentrations by strong bases. KOH has been used but other alkali metal oxides and/or hydroxides could be used. NH₄ OH and/or organic amines may also be used.

Ratios of solubilized Cd:Te:CN are important in determining product stoichiometry, cathode voltage current density ranges and end treatments needed for good photovoltaic response of fabricated cells.

Good films have been prepared under either constant cathode voltage or constant current density conditions.

A variety of anodes can be used. Possibilities include a soluble Cd and a soluble Te anode with split anode current. Additionally, inert anodes can be employed.

Successful runs at cathode current densities from 0.1 to greater than 5.0 mA/cm² with high CdTe current efficiencies have been made. Introducing substrates for a cathodic plating into the bath electrically hot and removing the CdTe plated cathode electrically hot are desirable steps in the plating procedure.

A special procedure has been developed to plate under modified constant current conditions and to obtain good film over a current density range unavailable without it.

This procedure overcomes the problem of excessively high current density on the bottom (leading edge) of the cathode during that short time during which it is being immersed into the solution electrically hot and removed electrically hot.

Under constant voltage mode, plating cell current generally decreases as a function of run time, because semiconducting CdTe is being plated. For those solution compositions and voltages which exhibit large current decrease as the plating proceeds, resulting in uneconomically long plating time requirements for deposition of sufficiently thick CdTe films, plating is started in the constant voltage mode, then switched to a constant current mode for most of the run and switched back to constant voltage mode just before the sample is removed from the bath.

More specifically, a preselected voltage (the value of which will depend upon bath composition and temperature and which has been selected to give the desired initial cathode current density), is applied to the cathode as it is immersed electrically hot, into the plating bath. As electrolysis proceeds and as the current drops to the value at which one wishes to complete the deposition, the power supply is switched to constant current mode, at the preset current value. The run is completed as a constant current run. Just before removal from solution, electrically hot (which protects the CdTe from the uncontrolled Cd, Te(IV) cementation reaction), the power supply is again switched to constant voltage mode. Thus, desired cathode current densities can be maintained while eliminating the undesired high current densities which obtain at the leading edge when samples are immersed and removed from baths, electrically hot.

To date, gold Schottky barrier layer cells prepared from CdTe samples from this basic, cyanide bath have demonstrated up to 1.7% conversion efficiency in converting sunlight to electrical energy. There are reasons to believe that such cell efficiencies can be increased. Parameters, e.g., film treatment to modify crystalline size, degree of amorphous vs. crystalline character, grain boundary contaminants, appropriate dopants plus many other factors known to greatly influence cell efficiencies, have not yet been optimized, either generally or specifically with reference to alkaline deposited CdTe.

Following are examples of specific bath compositions and plating conditions used with the alkaline deposition process just described:

    __________________________________________________________________________                        Plating Conditions                                          Bath Composition   Current                                                                              Cathode                                                                             Plating                                                                            Thickness.sup.2                              Cd(II)                                                                             Te(IV)                                                                              CN.sup.-                                                                             Temp                                                                               Density                                                                              Voltage.sup.1                                                                       Time                                                                               of CdTe                                      (g/l)                                                                              (g/l)                                                                               m/l                                                                               pH (°C.)                                                                       mA/(cm).sup.2                                                                        (mV) (Min)                                                                              (μm)                                      __________________________________________________________________________     3.2 22   0.75                                                                              11.4                                                                              60  2.5-.6                                                                               1220 30  1.0                                          3.2 22   0.75                                                                              11.4                                                                              60  4.5-.5                                                                                1400.sup.3                                                                         30  1.4                                          3.2 22   0.75                                                                              11.4                                                                              60  1.5        30  1.6                                          3.0 10   0.75                                                                              11.5                                                                              60  1.5-1.2                                                                              1300 10  0.5                                          3.0 10   0.75                                                                              11.5                                                                              84  1.0-.7                                                                               1200 30  1.2                                          3.0 10   0.75                                                                              11.5                                                                              60  0.5-.4                                                                               1200 30  1.2                                          __________________________________________________________________________      .sup.1 Stated value is relative to a Ag/AgCl (sat'd) reference electrode       with the cathode polarity negative with respect to the reference.              .sup.2 Thicker deposits can of course be made by extending run time.           .sup.3 Initial current density is 2.5 mA/cm.sup.2 at constant voltage          (1220mV) to one minute; then constant current density (1.5 mA/cm.sup.2) t      30 minutes; then constant voltage (1380 mV) to withdrawal.               

An important consideration in bath composition is that there is apparently an upper and lower limit in the soluble Cd(II)/cyanide-ion ratio which can be used. This indicates that within the series of [Cd(CN)_(x) ]^(+2-x) complex ions which form, the electroactive species is apparently not the predominant, x=4, complex but some low concentration of intermediate species where x=1, 2 or 3.

Deposition of CdTe in the bath used in the examples cited above (containing 3 g/l cadmium and 10 g/l tellurium) occurs in a range of cyanide-ion concentration between about 0.5 and 0.9 Molar.

The invention will be further understood by reference to the following illustrative examples.

      1st UNDERLAYER 2nd UNDERLAYER CdTe BATH  Type of   Current  Current      Rinse      SECOND CdTe BATH ExampleStainless Electro- Dip in Conc. Area      Time  Time  Dilute -Vdep Temp  Time Salt in.sup.(7) Temp  Time Salt.sup.(      7)  No. Steel polish.sup.(1) HCl 30 sec. cm.sup.2 mA sec. Bath mA sec.      Bath HCl mV °C. pH min. Bath Cd-- -Vdep °C. pH min.      Cd--     I 3/4" Yes .sup.(2) 24.7 NONE 125 39 Cd(CN).sub.2.sup.(4) Yes      612 80 2.1 38 SO.sub.4  strip  410 II 3/4" Yes Yes 24.7 1235 30 Au.sup.(3      )  50 75 In.sup.(5) Yes 600 80 2.2 79 Cl.sub.2       strip      588.sup.(6)  302 III 3/4" Yes Yes 30 1500 15 Au 150 32 Cd(CN).sub.2 No      583 80 2.5 150  SO.sub.4  strip  302 IV 3/4" Yes Yes 30 1500 15 Au 150      32 Cd(CN).sub.2 No 578 80 2.1 55 SO.sub.4  strip  302 V 3/4" Yes Yes      24.7 1235 60 Au 125 39 Cd(CN).sub.2 Yes 600 80 1.4 13 Cl.sub.2  strip             588.sup.(6)  302 VI 3/4" Yes Yes 30 1500 30 Au       125/ 39 Cd(CN).sub.2 Yes 600 80 2.1 12 SO.sub.4.sup.(8) 578 80 2.1 18      SO.sub.4  strip       24.7    588.sup.(6)  302       cm.sup.2 VII 3/4"      Yes Yes 30 1500 15 Au       115/ 37 Cd(CN).sub.2 Yes 578 80 2.1 19 SO.sub.4.sup.(8) 578 80 2.1 34      SO.sub.4 strip       23cm.sup.2  302 VIII 3/4" Yes Yes 24.7 1300 240  Ni      125 33 Cd(CN).sub.2 Yes 630 80 2.2 75 Cl.sub.2.sup.(9)  strip      620.sup.(6)  302 IX 3/4" Yes Yes 24.7 1300 39 Au 125 39 Cd(CN).sub.2 Yes      600 80 1.8 30 Cl.sub.2  strip           588.sup.(6)  302 X 3/4" Yes Yes      24.7 1235 30 Au 125 39 Cd(CN).sub.2 Yes 600 80 2.2 200  Cl.sub.2  strip               588.sup.(6)  302 XI 3/4" Yes Yes 24.7 1235 30 Au 125 39      Cd(CN).sub.2 Yes 600 80 2.2 89 Cl.sub.2  strip           588.sup.(6)      302 XII 3/4" Yes Yes 24.7 1235 240  Ni 125 33 Cd(CN).sub. 2 Yes 630 80      2.0 49 Cl.sub.2  strip           620.sup.(6)  302 XIII 3/4" Yes .sup.(2) 8       NONE  40 32 Cd(CN).sub.2 No 2.0 80 2.5 450  SO.sub.4  strip      1.0mA.sup.(10)  302 XIV 3/4" Yes Yes 30 1500 30 Au  125/ 37 Cd(CN).sub.2 Y      es 578 80 2.1 32 SO.sub.4  strip       25cm.sup.2  302 XV 3/4" Yes Yes      30 1500 30 Au  125/ 39 Cd(CN).sub.2 Yes 578 80 2.1 45 SO.sub.4  strip         24.7  302       cm.sup.2        SCHOTTKY Soak  BARRIER 25 wt %  POST ANNEAL  ANNEAL  Thick- KOH D.I.       Hydrazine  IN AIR EFFICIENCY.sup.(14) Example Temp Atmos- Time .sup.(11)        ness Time H.sub.2 O soak, time Methanol 2 wt % NaCN Methanol Temp.      Time % % No. °C. phere Min. Oven Metal A Min. Rinse min. Rinse      soak, sec. Rinse °C. Min. Avg. Best        I 307 Air 60 M Au 70 5 Yes 2 Yes     3.0 3.3 II 310 Air 60 M Au 80 2      Yes 1.5 Yes     3.4 4.6 III 300 Air 60 M Au 70 5 Yes 2 Yes     2.7 3.6      IV 300 Air 60 M Au 70 5 Yes 2 Yes     2.2 2.8 V 310 Air 60 M Au 80 5 Yes      2.5 Yes     4.1 4.6 VI 310 Air 60 T Au 80 5 Yes        2.0 VII 300 Air      60 M Au 70 5 Yes 2 Yes     2.8 3.3 VIII 311 Air 60 M Ni 250      20 Yes      210 60 4.8 5.2 IX 310 Air 60 M Ni 250      20 Yes   3.8 4.2 X 310 Air 60      M Au 80 5 Yes       2.7 3.0 XI 310 Air 60 M Au 85 2 Yes 10sec Yes  2 Yes         8.6 XII 310 Air 60 M Ni 250      20 Yes 220 50 2.3 3.0 XIII 300 Air      60 M Au 80 5 Yes        2.6 XIV 309 Air 60 T Ni 110    4 Yes   220 60      2.6 XV 307 Air 60 M ITO.sup.(12) 1000  30  Yes.sup.(13) 1 Yes   200      10.sup.(13)  5.1      NOTES FOR EXAMPLES      .sup.(1) Sample was degreased by rinsing in trichloroethylene followed by      an acetone rinse. Thereafter, the stainless steel strip is made anodic      with respect to a steel beaker containing an electrolyte consisting of 85      phosphoric acid and 15% sulphuric acid maintained at a temperature betwee      45 and 60 degrees C. A current of 9 amps is then applied for a period of      20 minutes.      .sup.(2) The stainless steel strip was made cathodic in 20% hydrochloric      acid for one minute employing a total current of 500mA over an area of      25cm.sup.2. Thereafter, the sample was made cathodic in a 1.2 sodium      cyanide solution with a total current of 500mA over an areas of      25cm.sup.2. In example XIII, potassium cyanide was used in place of sodiu      cyanide.      .sup.(3) Gold bath was a commercially available acid gold strike solution      sold by Technic, Inc. of Providence, Rhode Island under the trademark      OROSTRIKE.      .sup.(4) The cadmium cyanide bath composition consisted of 120 grams/lite      NaCN; 19 grams/liter CdO and 4.9 grams/liter of a commercial brightner      sold under the trademark RohCO SUPER XL (nickel).      .sup.(5) The indium bath was a commercial Indium Sulfamate plating kit      sold by Indium Corporation of America, Utica, New York.      .sup.(6) Electrodeposition was started at the more negative potential and      the potential was made less negative gradually within the first minute      until the more positive deposition potential was      .sup.(7) The electrodeposition baths were 1.2 M cadmium salts, e.g.,      cadmium sulfate or cadmium chloride, as indicated in each example, and in      all cases the baths were saturated with tellurium      .sup.(8) Cadmium telluride bath also contained 20 mg/liter of selenous      acid.      .sup.(9) The bath contained 0.6 M cadmium chloride which was saturated      with tellurium dioxide.      .sup.(10) Electrodeposition was carried out at a constant current, and th      value given is the total current for the      .sup.(11) Oven M was a 2.5 cubic foot oven which has no provision for air      circulation. Oven T is a tube furnace having a four inch OD and an air      flow of approximately 2      .sup.(12) The sample was etched in 0.5 volume percent bromine/methanol      solution before deposition of the Schottky      .sup.(13) This postannealing step was performed subsequent to the      deposition of the Schottky barrier and prior to potassium hydroxide soak      or deionized water rinse steps.      .sup.(14) Efficiency is measured utilizing an ELH lamp producing a light      intensity of 100 milliwatts/cm.sup.2 at the sample surface. This light      source is analogous to the solar spectrum and is conventionally used for      such experimentation.

The foregoing examples illustrate that the objects of the invention can be achieved employing a variety of substrates, deposition baths, deposition techniques, pretreatments and post-treatments and combinations thereof all as more specifically described hereinabove.

While this invention has been described with reference to specific embodiments thereof, it should be understood that it is not limited thereto and the appended claims are intended to be construed to encompass not only those embodiments of the invention described but such variations of these embodiments and other forms of the invention which may be made by those skilled in the art without departing from the invention's true spirit and scope. 

We claim:
 1. A photovoltaic cell comprising an electrodeposited cadmium telluride film and a substrate facing and in intimate contact with one side of said film and forming an ohmic junction at the interface therebetween, said substrate having a rest potential, when initially inserted in an electrodeposition bath as an electrode, which is more positive than the rest potential of cadmium under the same conditions, the surface layer of said substrate forming said ohmic junction with said film comprising one or more metals selected from Group II B and Group III A of the periodic table.
 2. The photovoltaic cell of claim 1 wherein said cadmium telluride film is relatively cadmium-rich at said ohmic junction interface.
 3. The photovoltaic cell of claim 2 wherein said cadmium telluride film is substantially stoichiometric n-type cadmium telluride.
 4. The photovoltaic cell of claim 1 wherein the surface layer of said substrate is cadmium.
 5. The photovoltaic cell of claim 1 wherein said substrate comprises a base layer of stainless steel and a surface layer of cadmium.
 6. The photovoltaic cell of claim 5 wherein said stainless steel base layer has been activated by treatment with one or more acids.
 7. The photovoltaic cell of claim 5 wherein said substrate further includes an intermediate gold layer.
 8. The photovoltaic cell of claim 5 wherein said substrate further includes an intermediate nickel layer.
 9. The photovoltaic cell of claim 1 wherein the surface of said cadmium telluride film includes cadmium selenide at the ohmic junction interface.
 10. The photovoltaic cell of claim 1 further including a barrier layer facing and in intimate contact with the other side of said cadmium telluride film and forming a rectifying junction at the interface therebetween.
 11. The photovoltaic cell of claim 10 wherein said barrier layer is gold.
 12. The photovoltaic cell of claim 10 wherein said barrier layer is nickel.
 13. The photovoltaic cell of claim 10 wherein said barrier layer includes a conductive material overcoat in a pattern to facilitate making electrical contact with said barrier layer while permitting a high proportion of incident light to reach said barrier.
 14. The photovoltaic cell of claim 13 further including an anti-reflective coating overlying said barrier layer.
 15. The photovoltaic cell of claim 10 wherein said cadmium telluride film is relatively oxide-rich at said rectifying junction interface.
 16. The photovoltaic cell of claim 10 wherein said cadmium telluride film is relatively rich in cadmium and tellurium oxides and hydroxides at said rectifying junction interface.
 17. The photovoltaic cell of claim 10 wherein said cell is cyanide treated.
 18. The photovoltaic cell of claim 10 wherein said cell is hydrazine treated.
 19. A photovoltaic cell comprising (a) a substantially stoichiometric n-type electrodeposited cadmium telluride film, said film being relatively cadmium-rich at one surface thereof, (b) a composite substrate facing and in intimate contact with the cadmium-rich surface of said film with an ohmic junction at the interface therebetween, said conductive substrate having a rest potential, when initially inserted in an electrodeposition bath as an electrode, which is less negative than the rest potential of cadmium under the same conditions, said substrate comprising a surface layer including one or more metals selected from Group II B and Group III A of the periodic table and a base layer of a second material and (c) a barrier layer facing and in intimate contact with the other side of said film with a rectifying junction at the interface therebetween.
 20. The photovoltaic cell of claim 19 wherein the surface layer of said substrate includes cadmium and the base layer of said substrate is stainless steel.
 21. The photovoltaic cell of claim 20 further including an intermediate layer of gold between said stainless steel and cadmium layers of said substrate.
 22. The photovoltaic cell of claim 20 further including an intermediate layer of nickel between said stainless steel and cadmium layers of said substrate.
 23. The photovoltaic cell of claim 19 wherein the surface of said cadmium telluride film includes selenide at the ohmic junction interface.
 24. The photovoltaic cell of claim 19 wherein said cadmium telluride film is relatively oxide-rich at said rectifying junction interface.
 25. The photovoltaic cell of claim 19 wherein said cadmium telluride film is relatively rich in cadmium and tellurium oxides and hydroxides at said rectifying junction interface.
 26. The photovoltaic cell of claim 19 wherein said cell is cyanide treated.
 27. The photovoltaic cell of claim 19 wherein said cell is hydrazine treated.
 28. The photovoltaic cell of claim 19 wherein said cell is annealed.
 29. In a photovoltaic cell comprising a cadmium telluride film and a conductive layer facing and in intimate contact with one side of said film with an ohmic junction at the interface therebetween, the improvement comprising said film being relatively cadmium-rich at said ohmic junction interface.
 30. The photovoltaic cell of claim 29 wherein said conductive layer is cadmium.
 31. The photovoltaic cell of claim 29 wherein said conductive layer is a composite material comprising a surface layer of cadmium and a base layer of stainless steel.
 32. The photovoltaic cell of claim 31 further including an intermediate gold layer between said stainless steel layer and said cadmium layer.
 33. The photovoltaic cell of claim 31 further including an intermediate nickel layer between said stainless steel layer and said cadmium layer.
 34. The photovoltaic cell of claim 29 wherein the surface of said cadmium telluride film includes cadmium selenide at the ohmic junction interface.
 35. The photovoltaic cell of claim 29 further including a barrier layer facing and in intimate contact with the other side of said cadmium telluride film and forming a rectifying junction at the interface therebetween.
 36. The photovoltaic cell of claim 35 wherein said barrier layer is gold.
 37. The photovoltaic cell of claim 35 wherein said barrier layer is nickel.
 38. The photovoltaic cell of claim 35 wherein said barrier layer includes a conductive material overcoat in a pattern to facilitate making electrical contact with said barrier layer while permitting a high proportion of incident light to reach said barrier.
 39. The photovoltaic cell of claim 38 further including an anti-reflective coating overlying said barrier layer.
 40. The photovoltaic cell of claim 35 wherein said cadmium telluride film is relatively oxide-rich at said rectifying junction interface.
 41. The photovoltaic cell of claim 35 wherein said cadmium telluride film is relatively rich in cadmium and telluride oxides and hydroxides at said rectifying junction interface.
 42. The photovoltaic cell of claim 35 wherein said cell is cyanide treated.
 43. The photovoltaic cell of claim 35 wherein said cell is hydrazine treated.
 44. The photovoltaic cell of claim 35 wherein said cell is annealed. 